{"id":274,"date":"2026-03-20T11:33:52","date_gmt":"2026-03-20T15:33:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/romeguide.hcc-nd.edu\/?page_id=274"},"modified":"2026-03-20T11:33:52","modified_gmt":"2026-03-20T15:33:52","slug":"capitoline-hill","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/romeguide.hcc-nd.edu\/?page_id=274","title":{"rendered":"Capitoline\u00a0Hill"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

People inhabited this imposing hill during the Bronze Age (1300 BC) long before the City\u2019s foundation because of its\u00a0strategic location<\/strong>: an elevated space,\u00a0easily\u00a0fortified,\u00a0looking\u00a0over\u00a0Forum\u00a0Valley\u00a0(East)\u00a0and the\u00a0Tiber\u00a0River (South).\u00a0Until the 6th<\/sup>\u00a0century\u00a0BC\u00a0the hill had the name Mons Saturnus\u00a0<\/strong>in honor of the mythological\u00a0god Saturn<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>who, with his sister and consort Ops, ushered in a Golden Age of order and plenty in pre-historical times.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The\u00a0ideal version of\u00a0Roman\u00a0state\u00a0<\/strong>embraced two essential components: the element of imperial rule (imperium), dominion over the world, and constitutional rule (Res Publica),\u00a0government of the Senate and Roman\u00a0people\u00a0(SPQR)<\/span>.\u00a0<\/strong>Whereas\u00a0the\u00a0Palatine\u00a0best\u00a0symbolizes\u00a0the\u00a0former,\u00a0it\u00a0is\u00a0the Capitoline which does so for the latter.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Though the smallest, the Capitoline (Mons Capitolinus), one of Rome\u2019s legendary seven Hills (Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Quirinal, Esquiline, Viminal,\u00a0Caelian),\u00a0stands\u00a0out\u00a0as\u00a0the\u00a0most\u00a0important\u00a0of\u00a0all\u00a0seven,\u00a0particularly during the monarchical and republican phases of the\u00a0City. Its great significance derives from its three practical and symbolic functions\u00a0essential to civic life: military (Arx), religious (Capitoline Triad), administrative (Tabularium).\u00a0Throughout its Roman history, this hill symbolized the essence of the state itself,\u00a0its\u00a0very purpose and divinely ordained destiny. As in other parts of the\u00a0City, the Capitoline constitutes a palimpsest, many levels of historic structures lying on top of one another and moving backward in time. Its origins tie it inextricably to the legendary tale of the\u00a0Trojan prince Aeneas and his son Ascanius<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>who, after the destruction of the city of Troy, a colony of Greece in Asia Minor, landed on the shore of Latium. Their descendants,\u00a0Romulus\u00a0and Remus,\u00a0ultimately founded\u00a0the City of Rome.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Romans believed that under Jupiter\u2019s protection their destiny, divinely guaranteed, would prevail, and their religious center would survive all trials and tribulations.\u00a0The Latin word, Capitolium, from which the English word, capitol,\u00a0derives,\u00a0originally\u00a0referred\u00a0to\u00a0this\u00a0grand\u00a0temple\u00a0of\u00a0Jupiter<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>and\u00a0only\u00a0later\u00a0applied to the entire hill. Because Romans believed that Jupiter\u00a0represented\u00a0the\u00a0source\u00a0of\u00a0their\u00a0military\u00a0and\u00a0political\u00a0success,\u00a0no\u00a0other temple in the\u00a0City\u00a0exceeded it in size, setting, and decoration.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Latins on the Palatine Hill and the Sabines on the Quirinal\u00a0<\/strong>fought for control over the Capitoline. During a successful, 6th<\/sup>\u00a0century military campaign against the Sabines, the Roman king,\u00a0Tarquinius Priscus<\/span>,\u00a0<\/strong>vowed its construction. Legend has it that he\u00a0consulted augurs to\u00a0determine\u00a0the location most favorable to the\u00a0gods<\/strong>. The augurs learned that all but two of the divinities consented to its placement on crest of the hill and interpreted as good omens the dissent of the gods, Terminus, god of boundaries, and Iuventas, goddess of young men. No cause, they agreed, could ever suffice to move the boundaries of the\u00a0City\u00a0or to impair its\u00a0youthfulness\u00a0and\u00a0so\u00a0the\u00a0king\u00a0incorporated shrines\u00a0to\u00a0these\u00a0gods\u00a0into\u00a0the temple precinct.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The first stone temple in the\u00a0City,\u00a0stuccoed\u00a0and whitewashed, rose, preeminent\u00a0among\u00a0all\u00a0others\u00a0in\u00a0scale\u00a0and\u00a0adornments\u00a0(sculptures\u00a0by\u00a0Vulca\u00a0of\u00a0Veii\u00a0and\u00a0Lisyppus\u00a0of\u00a0Greece).\u00a0So\u00a0colossal\u00a0was\u00a0the\u00a0figure\u00a0of\u00a0Jupiter\u00a0in\u00a0his chariot\u00a0set on\u00a0the\u00a0temple\u00a0gable\u00a0that\u00a0it\u00a0was\u00a0visible\u00a0from\u00a0the\u00a0Alban\u00a0Hills,\u00a012 miles away.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Standing one hundred feet and covering an area half the size of a football field, this huge temple stood on a podium within a walled enclosure containing other shrines and altars and, as well, the colossal statue of Jupiter and two bronze statues of Hercules including one designed by the Greek sculptor,\u00a0Lyissipus, seized from Greek colony of Tarentum in southern Italy. Enclosed within a portico (pronaos) with six columns on each\u00a0side,\u00a0three\u00a0rows\u00a0deep,\u00a0the\u00a0temple\u00a0housed\u00a0three\u00a0cells,\u00a0the\u00a0middle\u00a0and largest one dedicated to\u00a0Jupiter,\u00a0<\/strong>with those of\u00a0Juno on the left side\u00a0<\/strong>and\u00a0Minerva on the right<\/strong>, all of whom constituted thereafter the\u00a0Capitoline\u00a0Triad<\/span><\/strong>. The sides and door of the shrine, gilded with gold, shone like the sun, so much so that the entire hill became known as the \u2018Capitolium\u00a0Refulgens\u2019 (shining-light hill). The basic form of the temple consisted in a modified version (Tuscan) of a Greek Doric temple which the Romans never changed throughout time, despite its many\u00a0subsequent\u00a0iterations.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

According\u00a0to\u00a0legend<\/strong>,\u00a0the\u00a0Temple\u00a0housed\u00a0statues,\u00a0each\u00a0representing\u00a0all\u00a0peoples\u00a0under Roman control, the \u2018salvatio\u00a0civium\u2019\u00a0<\/strong>(City\u2019s salvation).\u00a0Inscribed\u00a0on\u00a0their\u00a0chests\u00a0were\u00a0the\u00a0names\u00a0of each\u00a0country\u00a0and\u00a0hanging\u00a0from their necks, small bells. Priests guarded the statues night and day and when\u00a0the\u00a0bells rang, temple\u00a0officials informed\u00a0the Senate\u00a0which\u00a0would\u00a0send out an army to crush the rebellion (Mirabilia Urbis Romae). Among the many treasures\u00a0maintained\u00a0in the Temple and entrusted to the Capitoline Triad were the\u00a0Sibylline Books<\/span><\/strong>. Sibyls were priestesses of Apollo one of whose several shrines was a cave at the Bay of Naples. These\u00a0soothsayers\u00a0possessed\u00a0prophetic powers and their utterances, made in riddles and cryptic sayings, were recorded in sacred books.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Of the many temples in the\u00a0City, this was the\u00a0most richly\u00a0endowed. It overflowed\u00a0with\u00a0offerings\u00a0made\u00a0by\u00a0Consuls\u00a0and\u00a0Emperors,\u00a0and\u00a0it\u00a0sheltered the assets of the government. Rebuilt many times (83 BC, 69 BC, and 80 AD) because of fires, it always\u00a0emerged\u00a0more grandiose than before, making it the\u00a0symbol, par excellence, of the power and majesty of the\u00a0invincible Roman state<\/strong>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

During its construction diggers unearthed the bloody head of a man.\u00a0Roman\u00a0priests<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>summoned\u00a0an\u00a0Etruscan\u00a0augur\u00a0to\u00a0interpret its\u00a0meaning.\u00a0He replied prophetically that the\u00a0City would one\u00a0day rule over\u00a0the\u00a0entire\u00a0Italian\u00a0peninsula.\u00a0In\u00a0myth,\u00a0Roman\u00a0destiny\u00a0from\u00a0the\u00a0beginning\u00a0was\u00a0to\u00a0rule\u00a0over\u00a0and bring\u00a0civilization\u00a0to\u00a0the\u00a0whole\u00a0world.\u00a0In\u00a0Virgil\u2019s\u00a0account,\u00a0the\u00a0Cumaean\u00a0Sibyl\u00a0<\/strong>prophesied the fulfillment of the City\u2019s divine mission beginning with the reign of Augustus and progeny (\u201ctu\u00a0regere\u00a0imperio\u00a0populos\u00a0romane\u00a0memento\u201d).\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Historians today still\u00a0speculate\u00a0as to the exact causes of the City\u2019s spectacular success. Many point to the unique character of the Roman people tied historically to qualities connected to their pastoral origins (tenacity, courage, love of the soil and simple pleasures, appreciation of manual labor, desire for orderliness and structure, optimism, fun-loving dispositions, respect for tradition, and reverence of the divine). All combined, these tended to breed good and loyal soldiers together\u00a0with a capable and talented class of leaders and administrators. Add to\u00a0these opportunity\u00a0and\u00a0more\u00a0than\u00a0just\u00a0a\u00a0dose\u00a0good\u00a0luck\u00a0(Dea\u00a0Fortuna<\/span><\/strong>)\u00a0depicted\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

always as blind), and the future can be open-ended for those who seize it. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

At\u00a0the\u00a0Temple\u00a0of\u00a0Jupiter,\u00a0the\u00a0first\u00a0annual\u00a0meeting\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0Senate\u00a0took\u00a0place, where new members of the Senate swore their oath of office. As well, it served as the temple where victorious generals received their imperium (command) and offered sacrifice to the gods at the end of their Triumphal March\u00a0into\u00a0the\u00a0City.\u00a0Afterwards\u00a0guards\u00a0executed\u00a0their\u00a0royal\u00a0captives\u00a0in\u00a0the\u00a0Mamertine prison\u00a0<\/strong>below the hill.\u00a0Here, on the hill in 131 BC, the senatorial class murdered the City\u2019s first real political reformer and Tribune,\u00a0Tiberius Gracchus<\/span>, a political assassination that did not bode well for the future of the republican constitution.<\/strong>\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The hill\u2019s strategic position together with the steepness of its slopes made it <\/p>\n\n\n\n

a\u00a0natural\u00a0bulwark\u00a0against\u00a0attacks\u00a0from\u00a0outsiders<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Part of it, the\u00a0Arx<\/span><\/strong>,\u00a0a\u00a0walled\u00a0citadel\u00a0on\u00a0the north\u00a0side\u00a0of the\u00a0hill, protected its citizens\u00a0as\u00a0the\u00a0last\u00a0point\u00a0of\u00a0retreat\u00a0in\u00a0times\u00a0of\u00a0war. Because\u00a0of\u00a0its\u00a0clear\u00a0view of\u00a0the\u00a0distant\u00a0Alban\u00a0Hills\u00a0it\u00a0also\u00a0served\u00a0as\u00a0the\u00a0place\u00a0from\u00a0which\u00a0the\u00a0Augurs\u00a0<\/strong>of the City\u00a0took watch to\u00a0observe\u00a0the flight of sacred birds<\/strong>.\u00a0The middle ground between the Arx and the current Palazzo\u00a0dei\u00a0Conservatori\u00a0was called the \u2018inter duos\u00a0lucus\u2019,\u00a0the place where Romulus\u00a0established\u00a0a sanctuary for foreign refugees\u00a0in order to\u00a0increase the population of his\u00a0City.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

At\u00a0the\u00a0Arx during\u00a0the\u00a0Sabine\u00a0conflict,\u00a0Tarpeia<\/span><\/strong>,\u00a0a\u00a0Vestal\u00a0virgin\u00a0and\u00a0daughter of the Roman commander, had betrayed the\u00a0City\u00a0and gave entry to the Sabines in exchange for the reward of a piece of jewelry. Instead, the Sabines crushed her to death with their metallic shields and tossed her body from the southern cliff of the hill.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Thereafter, the site, named after her, the\u00a0Tarpeian Rock<\/span><\/strong>, rising 160 feet above\u00a0the\u00a0ground,\u00a0became\u00a0one\u00a0of\u00a0Rome\u2019s\u00a0places\u00a0of\u00a0execution\u00a0for\u00a0political crimes. The last person put to death at the site was Simon bar Gora, a Jewish insurrectionist and prisoner of the First Jewish-Roman War, executed during the reign of Emperor Vespasian in 71 AD.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

When\u00a0Gauls raided Rome in 390 BC, the Capitoline Arx\u00a0remained\u00a0the only section of the\u00a0City\u00a0safe from the barbarians.\u00a0<\/strong>Alerted to the presence of the invaders by the honking of geese sacred to Juno at the nearby temple, Romans successfully defended the garrison. In popular\u00a0language\u00a0the\u00a0temple became known as Juno Moneta<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>(having been warned). The English\u00a0word\u00a0money originated\u00a0from\u00a0the Latin word \u2018moneta\u2019,\u00a0associated\u00a0with\u00a0the\u00a0mint\u00a0and\u00a0the\u00a0warning\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0geese. The\u00a0mint,\u00a0located\u00a0in the vicinity of the temple, later moved to the Esquiline Hill area, its ancient\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

foundations resting now near a Mithraic shrine under San Clemente Basilica.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The Sack of the City by Gauls in 390 BC created among Romans a \u2018crisis mentality\u2019 which resulted in the construction of an extensive\u00a0defensive wall in 387 BC (Servian)<\/span><\/strong>, often\u00a0misnamed and mistaken for the Servian Wall of the 6th<\/sup>\u00a0century Etruscan King, Servilius Tullius. Remnants of\u00a0these\u00a04th<\/sup>\u00a0century\u00a0ramparts\u00a0appear\u00a0near\u00a0the\u00a0entrance\u00a0of\u00a0Stazione\u00a0Termini. Once, seven miles in length,\u00a0thity-four feet high, and twelve feet thick, they enclosed a\u00a0City\u00a0with one thousand acres of land and a population of fifty thousand people, which would grow even larger with the passage of time.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

In the Middle\u00a0Ages\u00a0the original sacred function of the Capitoline devolved from its original religious purposes to purely political ones, when the civil government of the\u00a0City\u00a0came under papal control. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, until the mid-11th<\/sup>\u00a0century, control of the\u00a0City\u00a0seesawed between the papacy and Byzantine government officials or the papacy and leading, local, aristocratic factions. In the 12th<\/sup>\u00a0century, however, revolts by the aristocracy and populace turned against papal control.\u00a0Arnold of\u00a0Brescia, an Augustinian monk and prior<\/span><\/strong>, succeeded in 1144 in the restoration of the Senate of the Roman People and the creation of a new government,\u00a0the\u00a0Comune\u00a0di\u00a0Roma<\/strong>.\u00a0A\u00a0power\u00a0struggle\u00a0among\u00a0the\u00a0populace,\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

aristocracy, and papacy ensued, lasting for four decades, until a compromise was concluded in 1488. Papal sovereignty with authority to appoint the City prefect was recognized in exchange for papal recognition of municipal autonomy controlled by the Senate. The Comune, an autonomous republic under the papacy, survived until the end of the 14th<\/sup> century. Its history includes the construction of four new churches (San Bartolomeo on the Tiber Island), the repair of two bridges (Cestio), and the creation of two hospitals (Santo Spirito in the Borgo near St.Peter\u2019s). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The\u00a0oldest building\u00a0on the\u00a0Capitoline,\u00a0the\u00a0Tabularium, became\u00a0home\u00a0of this\u00a0Medieval\u00a0senate\u00a0and even\u00a0today\u00a0the\u00a0Palazzo\u00a0Senatorio<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>serves\u00a0as Rome\u2019s City Hall and office of the mayor. At its lowest level, the palazzo provides, as well, a passageway which connects the two Capitoline Museums, the Palazzo\u00a0Nuovo\u00a0and the Palazzo\u00a0dei\u00a0Conservatori.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

As the only building on the Hill never destroyed by earthquake, fire, or plunder, it continues to link the contemporary City to its ancient Republican origins. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Below the steps leading to the mayor\u2019s office on the left side of\u00a0the Palazzo stands a\u00a0column supporting a copy of the Etruscan bronze statue of\u00a0the Capitoline Lupa<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>whose\u00a0original is in the Museum (Capitoline). The Lupa was the only\u00a0animal\u00a0sacred to the god, Mars. She\u00a0came to the rescue of\u00a0twins\u00a0Romulus\u00a0and\u00a0Remus\u00a0whom\u00a0she\u00a0found\u00a0abandoned\u00a0on\u00a0the\u00a0shores\u00a0of the Tiber and suckled them until rescued by the shepherd, Faustulus, and wife, Acca Larentia.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Palazzo\u00a0dei\u00a0Conservatori<\/span><\/strong>,\u00a0another\u00a0civil\u00a0government\u00a0structure,\u00a0built\u00a0later,\u00a0in the 13th<\/sup>\u00a0century, rises over the site of the Jupiter Temple.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The Capitoline\u00a0frequently enough\u00a0became the scene of dramatic movements of political turbulence, such as\u00a0Cola di Rienzo\u2019s\u00a0<\/strong>short-lived attempt to revive the Roman Republic in the 14th<\/sup>\u00a0century during the Avignon\u00a0Exile\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0Papacy. As\u00a0Tribune\u00a0of\u00a0Rome\u00a0<\/strong>in\u00a01348\u00a0he\u00a0ordered\u00a0the construction of the steps to Ara\u00a0Coeli in thanksgiving for the City\u2019s escape from the Black Death in the spring of that year.\u00a0A\u00a0bronze statue of Cola<\/span><\/strong>, erected by the Italian government in the 19th<\/sup>\u00a0century, stands now in the grassy space between the Capitoline and the Church of the Ara Coeli where an angry Roman mob cut him down in 1354.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Many cities\u00a0and\u00a0states\u00a0throughout\u00a0the\u00a0world\u00a0have\u00a0adopted animals as their symbolic representatives to the world at large. The Wolf and the Eagle\u00a0serve\u00a0as\u00a0the\u00a0City\u2019s\u00a0most\u00a0ancient\u00a0and\u00a0visible\u00a0examples<\/strong>.\u00a0The\u00a0She-Wolf suckled and nurtured the\u00a0twins\u00a0Romulus and Remus at the beginning of the City\u2019s. Her image appears, virtually everywhere, on monuments, ancient and contemporary. For\u00a0virtually a\u00a0hundred years,\u00a0two live wolves\u00a0lived, caged on the Capitoline slope<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>just a few yards away from the bronze statue of Cola di Rienzo. This practice ended in the early 1970\u2019s when concerns over animal cruelty convinced the\u00a0City\u00a0government to remove them as well as that of the eagle\u00a0maintained\u00a0in a cage near the Teatro Marcello.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

At the Capitoline in 1341\u00a0Francesco\u00a0Petrarch<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>received his poet-laureate crown.\u00a0A prolific writer and poet, many regard him as the herald of the Renaissance. Attracted to City and its monumental ruins, he was its visitor five\u00a0times\u00a0in\u00a0his\u00a0lifetime,\u00a0seeing\u00a0in\u00a0them\u00a0an\u00a0explicit\u00a0connection\u00a0to\u00a0the\u00a0history and literature of its ancient past. He was\u00a0the among\u00a0the first scholars to promote the need for serious study of Roman antiquity.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Here\u00a0too\u00a01764\u00a0Edward\u00a0Gibbon<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>received\u00a0inspiration\u00a0to\u00a0write\u00a0his\u00a0renowned history book,\u00a0The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire<\/strong>.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

By the 16th century, however, diverse\u00a0but\u00a0decaying civic buildings\u00a0<\/strong>surrounded\u00a0the\u00a0small\u00a0piazza\u00a0in\u00a0the\u00a0middle\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0hill.\u00a0It\u00a0had\u00a0become\u00a0a meadow used for grazing goats and had\u00a0acquired\u00a0the name,\u00a0Monte\u00a0Caprino<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>(the goat hill).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The\u00a0Campidoglio\u00a0<\/strong>represents\u00a0not only the modern City\u2019s first planned public square but, as well, architecturally, one of the most famous and beautiful metropolitan hubs in\u00a0all the\u00a0world. In anticipation of the 1538 visit of\u00a0Emperor Charles V<\/span><\/strong>, Pope Paul II commissioned his architect\u00a0Michelangelo\u00a0<\/strong>to redesign the piazza and the surrounding palaces. The emperor had recently defeated Muslim forces in North Africa and the pope wished to fete him with a triumphal march to the Capitoline. During his two-day visit to the\u00a0City, the emperor visited the Pantheon and was escorted to the\u00a0roof and\u00a0the\u00a0top\u00a0of the dome. As he\u00a0leaned\u00a0over\u00a0the\u00a0edge to\u00a0peer at the floor below,\u00a0one\u00a0the papal officers in his entourage\u00a0was\u00a0suddenly seized with the violent impulse to push him into the abyss. The officer\u00a0reportedly told\u00a0his\u00a0own\u00a0father\u00a0later\u00a0that\u00a0he\u00a0did\u00a0not\u00a0understand\u00a0\u2018how\u00a0I\u00a0resisted\u00a0the\u00a0urge\u2019.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Michelangelo\u2019s design for the piazza and remodeling of the two surrounding (Palazzo Senatorio and Palazzo dei Conservatori) buildings reversed the classical orientation of the Capitoline toward the Forum. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Instead,\u00a0he\u00a0redirected\u00a0it\u00a0towards\u00a0Papal\u00a0Rome\u00a0and\u00a0St.\u00a0Peter\u2019s\u00a0Basilica.\u00a0The shape of the piazza seems square but is, actually,\u00a0trapezoidal<\/span><\/strong>.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Its\u00a0centerpiece\u00a0remains\u00a0the\u00a0statue\u00a0of\u00a0Marcus\u00a0Aurelius<\/span><\/strong>,\u00a0the\u00a0only\u00a0perfectly intact, ancient, equestrian statue in the world.\u00a0Symbolism pervades the sculpture<\/strong>. The gilded and oversized figure of the emperor astride the horse, the\u00a0outstretched right hand, the\u00a0lack of armor on a\u00a0military leader, all serve to underscore the universality and benevolence of Roman imperial power. Set at the very center of the oval shaped center of the square, the statue symbolizes the shift of power from the Roman Forum, the umbilical center of the Republic and Empire, to its new Renaissance seat at the\u00a0Capital.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Michelangelo designed<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>the simple but elegant pedestal which he carved from\u00a0a\u00a0huge\u00a0block\u00a0of\u00a0marble\u00a0from\u00a0Trajan\u2019s\u00a0Baths.\u00a0When\u00a0Emperor\u00a0Charles\u00a0V first viewed the statue in 1536, he commanded it to speak.\u00a0A Roman anecdote has it that when the gold coating on the statue is worn away, the work will\u00a0come to an end<\/strong>. Some of its original gilding\u00a0remains\u00a0still. This famous sculpture, the prototype of later equestrian statues, survived destruction in early Christian history because Christians thought it erroneously a statue of Constantine, author of the Edict of Milan and first Christian Emperor. Its prominent status, however, did not always preserve it from abuse. In 1347 Cola di Rienzo, self-proclaimed Tribune of the City, used it as a prop during a banquet he hosted in the square when wine and water flowed from the nostrils of the horse.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The\u00a0bronze\u00a0statue<\/span><\/strong>, now\u00a0in\u00a0the\u00a0Piazza,\u00a0is\u00a0a\u00a0very\u00a0recent\u00a0copy\u00a0whose\u00a0original stands (since 1990) in the nearby\u00a0Palazzo\u00a0dei\u00a0Conservatori<\/strong>, a part of the Capitoline Museum.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Michelangelo\u2019s pavement consists of herringbone lines with an oval\u00a0in\u00a0center<\/span><\/strong>.\u00a0Only\u00a0much\u00a0later\u00a0during\u00a0the\u00a0Mussolini\u00a0regime\u00a0was\u00a0its\u00a0star\u00a0added. Interpretations about the symbolism of the patterns are\u00a0numerous: astrological signs, the apostles, Twelve Tables of the Law, a shield, even an egg \u2013 all with allusions to the future.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

At the far end of the piazza and constructed over the remains of the\u00a0Tabularium\u00a0in the 13th<\/sup>\u00a0century stands\u00a0Palazzo\u00a0Senatorio<\/span><\/strong>. The palace housed the Senate, an elected body responsible for the administration of justice. Around 1543\u00a0Michelangelo\u00a0<\/strong>renovated it re-orienting the fa\u00e7ade, moving the medieval campanile to the center, adding the double ramp staircase, and\u00a0creating the\u00a0setting below for\u00a0the placement of the\u00a0statues of the\u00a0river gods, the Nile and the Tiber<\/strong>, both holding cornucopia, (looted from\u00a0the\u00a0ancient\u00a0baths\u00a0of\u00a0Constantine\u00a0on\u00a0the\u00a0Quirinal\u00a0Hill)\u00a0and\u00a0in\u00a0the\u00a0center, in porphyry stone, the goddess Minerva (Dea Roma). Most of Michelangelo\u2019s original design for the square was executed by over three hundred successive architects following his basic plan.\u00a0The\u00a0campanile (bell tower), nicknamed the \u2018Patara\u201d,\u00a0<\/strong>rings a bell plundered\u00a0from\u00a0the\u00a0city\u00a0of\u00a0Viterbo\u00a0and\u00a0until\u00a01871\u00a0when\u00a0Rome\u00a0became capitol of the Italian state rung only at the death of a pope and at the beginning of each Carnival season and January 6.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Today the palace serves as the\u00a0seat of the\u00a0City\u2019s government and houses the\u00a0offices\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0mayor\u00a0of\u00a0Rome<\/strong>,\u00a0the\u00a0oldest existing\u00a0city\u00a0hall\u00a0anywhere\u00a0in the world. Its\u00a0ancient cipher, SPQR<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>(Senatus\u00a0Populusque\u00a0Romanus), turns up on government property throughout the City, emblazoned on signs, churches, fountains, drain covers, buses, and metro stations.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The\u00a0City\u00a0Council\u00a0Room<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>stands\u00a0on\u00a0the\u00a0second\u00a0floor\u00a0and\u00a0houses\u00a0a\u00a0Julius Caesar sculpture, the only extant ancient (Trajan era) statue of the dictator in the\u00a0City<\/strong>.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Palazzo\u00a0dei\u00a0Conservatori<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>set\u00a0over\u00a0the\u00a0remains\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0Temple\u00a0of\u00a0Jupiter\u00a0on the\u00a0right\u00a0side\u00a0of the\u00a0piazza appeared in\u00a0the\u00a013th<\/sup>\u00a0century, constructed\u00a0for the local magistrates (Conservatori).\u00a0Michelangelo\u00a0<\/strong>renovated the fa\u00e7ade which he intended\u00a0to complement the fa\u00e7ade of a new building across from it, the Palazzo Nuovo.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

To complete the piazza’s symmetry and camouflage the tower of the Aracoeli, Michelangelo designed the\u00a0Palazzo Nuovo<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>(new), a replica of Palazzo\u00a0dei\u00a0Conservatori\u00a0across\u00a0the\u00a0piazza.\u00a0The\u00a0newer\u00a0palace,\u00a0constructed in 1603, sits at an angle to its partner, producing a trapezoid shape.\u00a0Its portico housed offices of various guilds where tribunes adjudicated business disputes.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The\u00a0Palazzo Caffarelli-Clementino<\/span>,\u00a0<\/strong>an annex to the Palazzo\u00a0dei\u00a0Conservatori,\u00a0appeared\u00a0in\u00a0the\u00a0mid-16th<\/sup>\u00a0century\u00a0built\u00a0from\u00a0the\u00a0remains\u00a0of\u00a0the Temple of Jupiter Maximus Optimus. The municipality hosts\u00a0here short-term exhibitions.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

It\u00a0houses,\u00a0as\u00a0well,\u00a0a\u00a0coffee\u00a0bar\u00a0on\u00a0its\u00a0terrace\u00a0with\u00a0a charming, panoramic view of the city<\/strong>.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Michelangelo\u2019s wide-ramped stairway, the\u00a0Cordonata<\/span><\/strong>, executed by the architect, Giacomo della Porta in 1578, gradually ascends to the Renaissance piazza above, in sharp contrast to the older and much\u00a0steeper stairs leading to the adjacent Medieval Church of Santa Maria in Ara Coeli. The differences reflect well the spiritual and cultural changes which occurred in Western Europe over the course of 200 years. One staircase built in 1536 to\u00a0celebrate the\u00a0imperial visit of\u00a0Charles V to the\u00a0City\u00a0symbolizes\u00a0the\u00a0Renaissance spirit\u00a0of worldliness\u00a0<\/strong>and\u00a0the importance of the\u00a0here\u00a0and\u00a0now.\u00a0The\u00a0other,\u00a0constructed\u00a0in\u00a01348\u00a0during\u00a0an\u00a0epidemic\u00a0of\u00a0the Black\u00a0Plague\u00a0emphasizes the view that life is a wearying journey through a vale of tears<\/strong>. The\u00a0Cordonata\u00a0accommodates pedestrians and\u00a0in the past, as well, horses and riders.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Despite the failed efforts of Michelangelo to transfer the sculptures of the Dioscuri\u00a0Twins\u00a0from\u00a0the\u00a0Quirinal\u00a0Hill\u00a0to\u00a0the\u00a0Capitoline, on\u00a0the\u00a0balustrade\u00a0at the top of the stairs proudly stand\u00a0statues of Castor and Pollux<\/span><\/strong>, twin protector deities of the City, sons of Zeus and Leda, and the brothers of Helen of Troy. They\u00a0fought in the Latium War of 496 BC against the Etruscan king and allies and first announced victory of\u00a0Romans\u00a0to its citizens.\u00a0At the top of the\u00a0Cordonata\u00a0remain\u00a0two\u00a0Milliaria<\/strong>, milestone markers (first and seventh), taken from the ancient Via Appia, the City\u2019s first major\u00a0road\u00a0and great thoroughfare to the southern Italian port city of\u00a0Brindisi.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Lying\u00a0at\u00a0the\u00a0base\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0railings\u00a0stand\u00a0two\u00a0Egyptian\u00a0lions\u00a0in\u00a0black\u00a0basalt, 1886 copies of originals,\u00a0<\/strong>and the\u00a0Trophies of Marius<\/span><\/strong>, sculpted triumphant symbols of Emperor Domitian\u2019s victories and relics from the Theater of Balbus nearby.\u00a0At the right side of the\u00a0Cordonata\u00a0rises the\u00a0Tre Pile Road<\/strong>, a 19th<\/sup>\u00a0century carriage road that winds its way to the top of the hill behind the Palazzo\u00a0dei\u00a0Conservatori.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

At the foot of the\u00a0Cordonata\u00a0remain ancient ruins of atop floor 2nd<\/sup>\u00a0century AD\u00a0Roman\u00a0apartment\u00a0house<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>(insula),\u00a0one\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0few\u00a0surviving\u00a0in\u00a0the\u00a0City. Its five stories, shops, and parts of a Medieval church (San Biagio) with a belltower are visible today from the street. The lowest level now lies about eight feet below the ground. Most apartment houses like this had shops (tabernae) on the ground floor and on the floor above,\u00a0a one\u00a0room, one\u00a0windowed,\u00a0apartment\u00a0where\u00a0shop\u00a0owners\u00a0lived.\u00a0Many\u00a0shops\u00a0specialized\u00a0in \u2018carry out\u2019 food for apartment dwellers, most of whom lacked cooking facilities and running water in their quarters. Only the top floor of this structure was above ground in the Middle Ages when the structure was converted into the church, remnants of which are visible now.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Facing\u00a0the\u00a0Roman\u00a0Forum at the base\u00a0of the\u00a0Capitoline\u00a0Hill sits the\u00a0ancient\u00a0Mamertine prison\u00a0located\u00a0under the church of San Giuseppe\u00a0dei\u00a0Falegnami<\/span><\/strong>. The prison, the City\u2019s first, and for many years its only one, includes\u00a0two\u00a0levels.\u00a0The\u00a0lower,\u00a07th<\/sup>\u00a0century\u00a0BC,\u00a0level\u00a0(Tullianum<\/strong>)\u00a0originated as a spring-fed, cistern (tullius) consisting of a small circular space (6.5\u2019 x 30\u2019 x 222\u2019) carved out rock and tufa blocks held together with large iron clamps. The upper (Mamertine<\/strong>), created over the\u00a0Tullianum\u00a0in the 4th<\/sup> century BC, functioned as a retention center for criminals awaiting execution. A circular hole cut through the upper floor served as the only entrance to the\u00a0Tullianum. This airless dungeon without any amenities, a dark,\u00a0filthy,\u00a0stench-filled\u00a0place,\u00a0was\u00a0reserved\u00a0for\u00a0those\u00a0condemned\u00a0to\u00a0death by strangulation or starvation. A metal door on one of its walls opened to the\u00a0Cloaca Maxima\u00a0<\/strong>where bodies could be tossed. Most prisoners were chained to rings embedded in\u00a0its\u00a0walls. Some, however, were laid out on the floor secured by their legs enclosed in stocks. A small number of captured\u00a0foreign\u00a0rulers\u00a0waited\u00a0here\u00a0before\u00a0being\u00a0paraded\u00a0in\u00a0the\u00a0conquering Roman general\u2019s triumphal march through the\u00a0City\u00a0to\u00a0the Capitoline\u00a0Hill.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Except for\u00a0Vercingetorix of Gaul<\/span><\/strong>,\u00a0captured by Julius Caesar<\/strong>, and Jugurtha\u00a0of\u00a0Numidia,\u00a0most\u00a0of\u00a0these\u00a0sorts\u00a0of\u00a0prisoners\u00a0died\u00a0elsewhere.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

In\u00a0the\u00a0Middle\u00a0Ages\u00a0the\u00a0legend\u00a0arose\u00a0that\u00a0the\u00a0spring<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>appeared\u00a0miraculously at\u00a0the\u00a0time\u00a0of St.\u00a0Peter\u2019s incarceration\u00a0when\u00a0he\u00a0needed\u00a0water\u00a0to\u00a0baptize his\u00a0jailers.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The\u00a0pillar<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>to\u00a0which\u00a0he\u00a0was\u00a0chained\u00a0still\u00a0stands\u00a0next\u00a0to\u00a0the\u00a0altar\u00a0constructed by Christians to commemorate the event.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

A\u00a0marble\u00a0marker<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>inside\u00a0lists\u00a0the\u00a0names\u00a0of\u00a0many\u00a0of\u00a0its\u00a0famous\u00a0prisoners including the apostles Peter and Paul\u00a0<\/strong>and Simon bar-Giora, the last defender of the city of Jerusalem besieged by Romans in 70 AD.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Political\u00a0figures\u00a0died\u00a0here\u00a0as\u00a0well:\u00a0Catiline\u2019s\u00a0co-conspirators\u00a0in\u00a063\u00a0BC\u00a0and, in 31 AD,\u00a0Sejanus<\/span><\/strong>,\u00a0friend and ally of Emperor Tiberius<\/strong>.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

On the\u00a0Gemonian Stairs (Stairway of Tears)<\/span><\/strong>, steps outside of the prison leading\u00a0from\u00a0Capitoline\u00a0summit\u00a0to\u00a0the\u00a0dungeon,\u00a0Romans\u00a0placed\u00a0the\u00a0bodies of executed prisoners on public display, scavenged by dogs and wild animals, and eventually thrown into the Tiber.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

People inhabited this imposing hill during the Bronze Age (1300 BC) long before the City\u2019s foundation because of its\u00a0strategic location: an elevated space,\u00a0easily\u00a0fortified,\u00a0looking\u00a0over\u00a0Forum\u00a0Valley\u00a0(East)\u00a0and the\u00a0Tiber\u00a0River (South).\u00a0Until the 6th\u00a0century\u00a0BC\u00a0the hill had the name Mons Saturnus\u00a0in honor of the mythological\u00a0god Saturn\u00a0who, with his sister and consort Ops, ushered in a Golden Age of order and plenty in pre-historical…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-274","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/romeguide.hcc-nd.edu\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/274","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/romeguide.hcc-nd.edu\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/romeguide.hcc-nd.edu\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/romeguide.hcc-nd.edu\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/romeguide.hcc-nd.edu\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=274"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/romeguide.hcc-nd.edu\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/274\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/romeguide.hcc-nd.edu\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=274"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}